Circulation and blood notes
CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
J1. FIVE TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
i) arteries - large, carry blood away from the heart
- thick elastic walls (can stretch)
- surrounded by smooth muscle (can control size)
ii) arterioles - smaller
- mostly smooth musle (much control)
iii) capillaries - microscopic
-nutrient, gas, waste exchange here
- 1 cell thick
- present all over body (networks, or beds)
- blood flow is controlled highly
- often have sphincters (muscle rings) between arterioles and capilary beds to control flow of blood into entire cap. beds.
iv) venules - drain blood from capillary beds
- begin flow towards the heart
v) veins - larger
- have valves - allow blood to flow only in one direction, towards the heart.
- act as a blood resevoir. (more than 50% of blood is in veins).
- thinner walls than arteries.
J4 PULMONARY AND SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Pulmonary circulation is to the lungs. It involves the right side of the heart (right ventricle) which pumps deoxygenated bllod into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. There, the blood is oxygenated in the capillaries of the alveoli. It returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein into the left atrium.
Systemic circulation is to the body. Blood is pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta where it heads off via a number of blood vessels to the rest of the body. It collects to return to the heart in two major veins, the superior (anterior) Vena cava which drains the head and upper body, and the inferior (posterior) Vena cava which drains the lower body. Both enter the right atrium.
Pulmonary - Lung
- pulmonary arteries - from R. Ventricle to lungs. Unoxygenated
- pulmonary veins - from lungs to L. atrium. Oxygenated
- lungs - capillary system for O2 / CO2 exchange
Systemic - Body
- all vessels leaving the heart - Oxygenated
- all vessels returning to the heart - Unoxygenated .
*** Note*** This is opposite to the Pulmonary System
J2 - BODY BLOOD VESSEL
J1. FIVE TYPES OF BLOOD VESSELS
i) arteries - large, carry blood away from the heart
- thick elastic walls (can stretch)
- surrounded by smooth muscle (can control size)
ii) arterioles - smaller
- mostly smooth musle (much control)
iii) capillaries - microscopic
-nutrient, gas, waste exchange here
- 1 cell thick
- present all over body (networks, or beds)
- blood flow is controlled highly
- often have sphincters (muscle rings) between arterioles and capilary beds to control flow of blood into entire cap. beds.
iv) venules - drain blood from capillary beds
- begin flow towards the heart
v) veins - larger
- have valves - allow blood to flow only in one direction, towards the heart.
- act as a blood resevoir. (more than 50% of blood is in veins).
- thinner walls than arteries.
J4 PULMONARY AND SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Pulmonary circulation is to the lungs. It involves the right side of the heart (right ventricle) which pumps deoxygenated bllod into the pulmonary artery to the lungs. There, the blood is oxygenated in the capillaries of the alveoli. It returns to the heart via the pulmonary vein into the left atrium.
Systemic circulation is to the body. Blood is pumped out of the left ventricle into the aorta where it heads off via a number of blood vessels to the rest of the body. It collects to return to the heart in two major veins, the superior (anterior) Vena cava which drains the head and upper body, and the inferior (posterior) Vena cava which drains the lower body. Both enter the right atrium.
Pulmonary - Lung
- pulmonary arteries - from R. Ventricle to lungs. Unoxygenated
- pulmonary veins - from lungs to L. atrium. Oxygenated
- lungs - capillary system for O2 / CO2 exchange
Systemic - Body
- all vessels leaving the heart - Oxygenated
- all vessels returning to the heart - Unoxygenated .
*** Note*** This is opposite to the Pulmonary System
J2 - BODY BLOOD VESSEL
Key to Circ. diagram.
A. pulmonarty artery - takes unoxygenated blood from the r. ventricle to the lungs
B. anterior vena cava - drains upper body, collects blood from jugular (head) and subclavian (arms) veins, blood enters r. atrium
C. posterior vena cava - drains lower body, blood enters r. atrium
D. right atrium - pumps blood into r. ventricle
E. right ventricle - pumps unoxygenatedblood to lungs
F. pulmonary vein - brings oxygenated blood to the l. atrium from the lungs
G. aorta - blood vessel leaving l. ventricle, takes oxygenated blood to the body
H. left atrium - pumps blood into l. ventricle
I. left ventricle - pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta
J. carotid artery - takes blood to head, subclavian arteries (to arms) branch off
K. mesenteric artery - takes blood to the intestines
L. renal arteries - takes blood to the kidneys from the aorta
M. iliac arteries - takes blood to the legs from the aorta
N. iliac veins - returns blood from the legs to posterior vena cava
O. renal veins - returns blood from the kidneys to posterior vena cava
P. hepatic portal vein - carries blood from the intestines to the liver
Q. hepatic vein - returns blood from the liver to posterior vena cava
J5. ADULT / FETAL CIRCULATION
The main differnnce is the fact that the fetus receives its O2 blood from the placenta , and does not use its lungs. To do this, there are four features in the fetus not present in the adult.
a) Oval opening or foramen ovale
- an opening between the L. and R. atria
- covered by a flap that acts as a valve
- reroutes blood away from lungs to the aorta
b) Arterial duct or ductus arteriosus
- connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta
- reroutes blood away from lungs to the aorta
c) Umbilical arteries and veins
- Artery travels toward placenta with waste, Vein travels to fetus with blood rich in O2 and nutrients
d) Venous duct or ductos venosus
- connection between the umbilical vein and the vena cava
- umbilical vein carries O2 blood which mixes with unO2 blood in the vena cava.
A. pulmonarty artery - takes unoxygenated blood from the r. ventricle to the lungs
B. anterior vena cava - drains upper body, collects blood from jugular (head) and subclavian (arms) veins, blood enters r. atrium
C. posterior vena cava - drains lower body, blood enters r. atrium
D. right atrium - pumps blood into r. ventricle
E. right ventricle - pumps unoxygenatedblood to lungs
F. pulmonary vein - brings oxygenated blood to the l. atrium from the lungs
G. aorta - blood vessel leaving l. ventricle, takes oxygenated blood to the body
H. left atrium - pumps blood into l. ventricle
I. left ventricle - pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta
J. carotid artery - takes blood to head, subclavian arteries (to arms) branch off
K. mesenteric artery - takes blood to the intestines
L. renal arteries - takes blood to the kidneys from the aorta
M. iliac arteries - takes blood to the legs from the aorta
N. iliac veins - returns blood from the legs to posterior vena cava
O. renal veins - returns blood from the kidneys to posterior vena cava
P. hepatic portal vein - carries blood from the intestines to the liver
Q. hepatic vein - returns blood from the liver to posterior vena cava
J5. ADULT / FETAL CIRCULATION
The main differnnce is the fact that the fetus receives its O2 blood from the placenta , and does not use its lungs. To do this, there are four features in the fetus not present in the adult.
a) Oval opening or foramen ovale
- an opening between the L. and R. atria
- covered by a flap that acts as a valve
- reroutes blood away from lungs to the aorta
b) Arterial duct or ductus arteriosus
- connection between the pulmonary artery and the aorta
- reroutes blood away from lungs to the aorta
c) Umbilical arteries and veins
- Artery travels toward placenta with waste, Vein travels to fetus with blood rich in O2 and nutrients
d) Venous duct or ductos venosus
- connection between the umbilical vein and the vena cava
- umbilical vein carries O2 blood which mixes with unO2 blood in the vena cava.
J6. PATH OF A BLOOD CELL
- List all of the blood vessels and heart chambers starting from the aorta (and returning to there) if the blood were to go through:
i) - intestines ________________________________________
ii) - right arm ________________________________________
iii) - kidney ________________________________________
J7. PLASMA
Blood contains:
a) Plasma - 55%
- H2O and dissolved organic and inorganic substances
b) Cells - 45%
- red blood cells (RBC's), white blood cells (WBC's), platelets
Plasma
- H2O (absorbed by large intestines)
- proteins
Albumen - osmotic balance, pH buffering (liver)
Fibrinogen - blood clotting (liver)
Immunoglobulins - antibodies (lymphocytes)
- gases (O2, CO2) - from lungs and tissues
- nutrients (fats, glucose, amino acids, nucleotides) - from intestines
- salts (Na+, K+, Cl-, NaCO3- etc) - from intestines
- wastes (urea, ammonia) - from body cells
- hormones (Thyroxin, adrenallin etc.) - from endocrine glands
- vitamins - intestines
J8. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
i) Essential functions
- take up excessive tissue fluid
- transport fatty acids (from intestines)
- fight infection (lymphocytes)
ii) Vessels and Organs
a) Vessels
- lymph capillaries take up cell fluids
- lymph veins (have valves)
The fluid (lymph) travels through the system and reenters the circulatory system through the right and left subclavian veins.
b) Lacteals
- blind ends found in the villi of intestines which absorb fats
c) Nodes
- small ovoid / round structures
- produce lymphocytes ( type of white blood cell ). These fight infection by producing antibodies which combine with, and deactivate foreign proteins
- filter and trap bacteria etc. (inc. spreading cancer cells)
d) Parts of other organs
- tonsils
- appendix
- spleen
- thymus gland
- All help fight infection
J.9 BLOOD CELL COMPONENTS
a) Red Blood Cells - erythrocytes
- small, biconcave disks, no nuclei
- continuously made in red bone marrow
- pass through several developmental stages during which they loose a nucleus and gain hemoglobin
-# in blood is related to O2 tension in air
- live 120 days
- iron is reused
- heme part (protein) is turned into bile pigments in the liver
- transport O2 and CO2
b) White Blood Cells - leucocytes
- larger, have a nucleus
- fewer in number
- some are ameboid in shape
- several kinds
- fragments of large, bone marrow cells
- produce 200,000,000,000 per day
- involved in blood clotting
J11. ANTIGENS, ANTIBODIES AND BLOOD TYPING
Antigen - a protein identification on the surface of a RBC.
Antibody - (made by the body ) a protein designed to combat a foreign protein
Antigen + AntibodyInactive complex
(foreign) (body) (agglutination)
There are two kinds of antigens that can be on human RBC's; A & B
Therefore, there are 4 possibilities of blood types
Antigen (blood type) Blood has antibodies
A - anti B
B - anti A
AB - no antibodies
O - both anti A & B
TRANSFUSIONS
- The donor's cells must match the recipient's plasma
- List all of the blood vessels and heart chambers starting from the aorta (and returning to there) if the blood were to go through:
i) - intestines ________________________________________
ii) - right arm ________________________________________
iii) - kidney ________________________________________
J7. PLASMA
Blood contains:
a) Plasma - 55%
- H2O and dissolved organic and inorganic substances
b) Cells - 45%
- red blood cells (RBC's), white blood cells (WBC's), platelets
Plasma
- H2O (absorbed by large intestines)
- proteins
Albumen - osmotic balance, pH buffering (liver)
Fibrinogen - blood clotting (liver)
Immunoglobulins - antibodies (lymphocytes)
- gases (O2, CO2) - from lungs and tissues
- nutrients (fats, glucose, amino acids, nucleotides) - from intestines
- salts (Na+, K+, Cl-, NaCO3- etc) - from intestines
- wastes (urea, ammonia) - from body cells
- hormones (Thyroxin, adrenallin etc.) - from endocrine glands
- vitamins - intestines
J8. LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
i) Essential functions
- take up excessive tissue fluid
- transport fatty acids (from intestines)
- fight infection (lymphocytes)
ii) Vessels and Organs
a) Vessels
- lymph capillaries take up cell fluids
- lymph veins (have valves)
The fluid (lymph) travels through the system and reenters the circulatory system through the right and left subclavian veins.
b) Lacteals
- blind ends found in the villi of intestines which absorb fats
c) Nodes
- small ovoid / round structures
- produce lymphocytes ( type of white blood cell ). These fight infection by producing antibodies which combine with, and deactivate foreign proteins
- filter and trap bacteria etc. (inc. spreading cancer cells)
d) Parts of other organs
- tonsils
- appendix
- spleen
- thymus gland
- All help fight infection
J.9 BLOOD CELL COMPONENTS
a) Red Blood Cells - erythrocytes
- small, biconcave disks, no nuclei
- continuously made in red bone marrow
- pass through several developmental stages during which they loose a nucleus and gain hemoglobin
-# in blood is related to O2 tension in air
- live 120 days
- iron is reused
- heme part (protein) is turned into bile pigments in the liver
- transport O2 and CO2
b) White Blood Cells - leucocytes
- larger, have a nucleus
- fewer in number
- some are ameboid in shape
- several kinds
- Neutrophils - 55 to 70%
- granules in cytoplasm
- polymorphonuclear (many lobed nucleus)
- produced in bone marrow
- phagocytic (engulf foreign stuff)
- Lymphocytes - 20 to 30%
- no granules in cytoplasm
- mononuclear
- matured in lymph tissue, thymus gland, spleen, tonsils
- produce antibodies
- B & T cells
- Monocytes - 2 to 8%
- phagocytes called macrophages, enlarge greatly in size at infections.
- Eosinophils - 1 to 4%
- involved in inflamatory and allergic responses
- Basophils - .5 to 1%
- release histamines
- involved in inflamatory and allergic responses
- fragments of large, bone marrow cells
- produce 200,000,000,000 per day
- involved in blood clotting
J11. ANTIGENS, ANTIBODIES AND BLOOD TYPING
Antigen - a protein identification on the surface of a RBC.
Antibody - (made by the body ) a protein designed to combat a foreign protein
Antigen + AntibodyInactive complex
(foreign) (body) (agglutination)
There are two kinds of antigens that can be on human RBC's; A & B
Therefore, there are 4 possibilities of blood types
- A - A antigens only
- B - B antigens only
- AB - both A and B antigens
- O - neither antigen
Antigen (blood type) Blood has antibodies
A - anti B
B - anti A
AB - no antibodies
O - both anti A & B
TRANSFUSIONS
- The donor's cells must match the recipient's plasma
J. 12 CAPILLARY - TISSUE FLUID EXCHANGE
At the arterial end of a capillary bed, blood pressure (40 mm Hg. ) is higher than the osmotic pressure (25 mm Hg.). Thus water (plasma) will be forced out through the walls of the capillaries into the surrounding tissues. Plasma proteins and blood cells are too big and remain in the capillaries.
Oxygen, sugars and amino acids in the fresh blood diffuses into the tissue cells where they are used up. CO2 and waste molecules produced in the tissue cells diffuse out of the tissues back into the blood. At the veinule end of the capillary beds, blood pressure is now reduced (10 mm Hg.), whereas osmotic pressure is the same (25mm Hg.). H2O now is pulled by osmotic pressure back into the blood vessels. Since osmosis is a slower process, not all of the H2O originally leaving the blood will return. The remaining fluid is picked up and carried back to the circulatory system by the Lymph system.
At the arterial end of a capillary bed, blood pressure (40 mm Hg. ) is higher than the osmotic pressure (25 mm Hg.). Thus water (plasma) will be forced out through the walls of the capillaries into the surrounding tissues. Plasma proteins and blood cells are too big and remain in the capillaries.
Oxygen, sugars and amino acids in the fresh blood diffuses into the tissue cells where they are used up. CO2 and waste molecules produced in the tissue cells diffuse out of the tissues back into the blood. At the veinule end of the capillary beds, blood pressure is now reduced (10 mm Hg.), whereas osmotic pressure is the same (25mm Hg.). H2O now is pulled by osmotic pressure back into the blood vessels. Since osmosis is a slower process, not all of the H2O originally leaving the blood will return. The remaining fluid is picked up and carried back to the circulatory system by the Lymph system.
ERYTHROBLASTOSIS AND THE Rh SYSTEM (This may be optional)
Rh factor - another antigen
Rh+ has antigen (85% of Caucasians)
Rh - doesn't have the antigen
If Rh antigens are mixed with Rh antibodies, clumping occurs.
* Rh - people do not normally have Rh antibodies, but can if exposed to Rh antigens.
This becomes important in pregnacies because a Rh- mother can have and Rh+ baby. Normally, the mother / fetal blood does not mix or cross the placenta. At birth, there is usually some mixing, so the mother begins to produce Rh antibodies in response to the Rh antigens on the baby's RBC's introduced during birth. There is no danger for either the mother or the first baby.
If the mother becomes pregnant with another Rh + baby, Rh antibodies now in the mother's plasma may cross the placenta and agglutinate the baby's blood. DEATH (Erythroblastosis)
This can be prevented by destroying the 1st baby's Rh + blood cells in the mother's plasma just after the 1st baby's birth before the mother has time to make the Rh antibodies in her plasma . An injection of Rh immune globulin injection does this.
Rh factor - another antigen
Rh+ has antigen (85% of Caucasians)
Rh - doesn't have the antigen
If Rh antigens are mixed with Rh antibodies, clumping occurs.
* Rh - people do not normally have Rh antibodies, but can if exposed to Rh antigens.
This becomes important in pregnacies because a Rh- mother can have and Rh+ baby. Normally, the mother / fetal blood does not mix or cross the placenta. At birth, there is usually some mixing, so the mother begins to produce Rh antibodies in response to the Rh antigens on the baby's RBC's introduced during birth. There is no danger for either the mother or the first baby.
If the mother becomes pregnant with another Rh + baby, Rh antibodies now in the mother's plasma may cross the placenta and agglutinate the baby's blood. DEATH (Erythroblastosis)
This can be prevented by destroying the 1st baby's Rh + blood cells in the mother's plasma just after the 1st baby's birth before the mother has time to make the Rh antibodies in her plasma . An injection of Rh immune globulin injection does this.